It is believed that players would cover one side of a shell with a black or very dark brown substance called “black pitch” - a resinous goo which is obtained from trees. While the actual origin of the coin toss is up for debate, many historians believe it originated in Ancient Greece. “Pile” comes from a Middle English term which means “reverse of a coin.” In Peru, the game is called “face or seal,” even to this day! In ancient China, the game was known as “ship or head.” This is because ancient Chinese coins were minted with a ship on one side and a head on the other. Later in history, the British called the game “cross and pile.” At the time, many coins depicted a cross on one side. The outcomes of those flips were considered to be legally binding. During this time, flips were utilized to make some very serious decisions, including those related to criminality, property, and marriage. Julius Caesar himself endorsed the coin flip in 49 BC when he began minting coins which depicted his name. During this period, Romans called the game “navia aut caput,” which translates to “ship or head.” This is because some Roman coins had a ship on one side and the head (or “bust”) of the emperor on the other side. But perhaps the most complete and striking parallel of all is to the paper “Is Classical Mechanics In Fact Deterministic?” by Max Born, Physics In My Generation, Springer‐Verlag, New York (1969), page 78.Metal coins were first manufactured as early as the 7th century BC, however, the first accounts of the practice of coin flipping can be found in ancient Rome. Readers with a historical bent may have already recognized many parallels of fact or spirit between the present paper and numerous earlier articles dating back at least to Maxwell. Semi‐private barroom conversations held at various conference watering holes around the world. Our definition of incalculable number is not the same as the computer theorist's definition of uncomputable number, although the terms are related. It perhaps should be mentioned here that entries in a cell‐number sequence need not be statistically independent despite any impression to the contrary created by the text itself. Information and Control 9, 602 (1966) Google Scholar Crossref Cohen, ed., North‐Holland, Amsterdam (1980). Helleman in Fundamental Problems in Statistical Physics, Vol V, E. In addition to references 1–4, see the reference list of R. Berry in Topics in Nonlinear Dynamics, S. Penrose, PHYSICS TODAY, February 1973, page 23. Raveche, ed., North‐Holland, Amsterdam (1981). Wightman has also lamented this seeming conspiracy of silence in Perspectives in Statistical Physics, H. A clear and highly readable discussion is J. Moreover, these probabilistic descriptions were presumed derivable from the underlying determinism, although no one ever indicated exactly how this feat was to be accomplished. Thereafter, probabilitistic descriptions of classical systems were regarded as no more than useful conveniences to be invoked when, for one reason or another, the deterministic equations of motion were difficult or impossible to solve exactly. In retrospect, it would appear strange indeed that no major confrontation ever arose between these seemingly contradictory world views were it not for the remarkable success of Laplace in elevating Newtonian determinism to the level of dogma in the scientific faith. During the period 1650–1750, for example, Newton developed his calculus of determinism for dynamics while the Bernoullis simultaneously constructed their calculus of probability for games of chance and various other many‐body problems. Probabilistic and deterministic Descriptions of macroscopic phenomena have coexisted for centuries.
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